Chapter One
Introduction to The Gospel
According to Matthew
On the surface of the Mediterranean
world lay the famed pax Romana,
"the peace of Rome," which the
Roman historian Tacitus attributes
almost solely to the immense powers
of Caesar Augustus. But as Tacitus
observes, the "peace" that Augustus
inaugurated did not bring with it freedom
for all of his subjects; many continued
to hope for change. Tides of
revolution swirled just below the surface
and periodically rose to disturb
the so-called peace of the Roman
empire.
In one of the remote regions of
the empire, where a variety of disturbances
repeatedly surfaced, the
hoped for freedom finally arrived in
a most unexpected way. A rival to
Augustus was born in Israel. But this
rival did not appear with fanfare,
nor would he challenge directly the
military and political might of
Rome. Even many of his own people
would become disappointed with
the revolution that he would bring,
because it was a revolution of the heart,
not of swords or chariots.
This is the story of the arrival of Jesus
of Nazareth, recorded by the apostle
Matthew as a compelling witness that
Jesus was the long-anticipated Messiah,
the prophesied fulfillment of God's
promise of true peace and deliverance for
both Jew and Gentile.
Author
All of the four Gospels are technically
anonymous, since the names of the
authors are not stated explicitly. This is
natural since the authors were not writing
letters to which are attached the
names of the addressees and senders.
Rather, the evangelists were compiling
stories of Jesus for churches of which
they were active participants and leaders.
They likely stood among the assembly
and first read their Gospel account themselves.
To attach their names as authors
would have been unnecessary, because
their audiences knew their identity, or
perhaps even inappropriate, since the primary
intention was not to assert their
own leadership authority, but to record
for their audiences the matchless story of
the life and ministry of Jesus.
Therefore we must look to the
records of church history to find evidence
for the authorship of the Gospels.
The earliest church tradition unanimously
ascribes the first Gospel to
Matthew, the tax-collector who was
called to be one of the original twelve
disciples of Jesus. The earliest and most
important of these traditions come from
Papias, bishop of Hierapolis in Asia Minor
(c. 135), and from Irenaeus, bishop of
Lyons in Gaul (c. 175). These church
leaders either knew the apostolic community
directly or were taught by those
associated with the apostles; thus, they
were directly aware of the origins of the
Gospels. While the full meaning of their
statements is still open to discussion, no
competing tradition assigning the first
Gospel to any other author has survived,
if any ever existed. False ascription to a
relatively obscure apostle such as
Matthew seems unlikely until a later
date, when canonization of apostles was
common.
Matthew, the Person
The list of the twelve disciples in
Matthew's gospel refers to "Matthew the
tax collector" (10:3), which harks back to
the incident when Jesus called Matthew
while he was sitting in the tax office (cf.
9:9). When recounting the call, the first
Gospel refers to him as "Matthew" (9:9),
while Mark's Gospel refers to him as
"Levi son of Alphaeus" (Mark 2:14), and
Luke's Gospel refers to him as "Levi"
(Luke 5:27). Speculation surrounds the
reason for the variation, but most scholars
suggest that this tax collector had two
names, Matthew Levi, either from birth
or from the time of his conversion.
The name Levi may be an indication
that he was from the tribe of Levi and
therefore was familiar with Levitical
practices. Mark's record of the calling
refers to him as the "son of Alphaeus"
(Mark 2:14), which some have understood
to mean that he was the brother of
the apostle "James son of Alphaeus" (cf.
Mark 3:18). But since the other pairs of
brothers are specified as such and linked
together, it is unlikely that Matthew-Levi
and James were brothers.
Matthew-Levi was called to follow
Jesus while he was sitting in the tax collector's
booth. This booth was probably
located on one of the main trade highways
near Capernaum, collecting tolls for
Herod Antipas from the commercial traffic
traveling through this area. Matthew
immediately followed Jesus and arranged
a banquet for Jesus at his home, to which
were invited a large crowd of tax collectors
and sinners (9:10-11; Luke 5:29-30).
Since tax collectors generally were
fairly wealthy and were despised by the
local populace (cf. Zacchaeus, Luke
19:1-10), Matthew's calling and response
were completely out of the ordinary
and required nothing short of a
miraculous turn-around in this tax collector's
life.
Little else is known of Matthew-Levi,
except for the widely attested tradition
that he is the author of this Gospel that
now bears his name. As a tax collector he
would have been trained in secular scribal
techniques, and as a Galilean Jewish Christian
he would have been able to interpret
the life of Jesus from the perspective of the
Old Testament expectations. Eusebius said
that Matthew first preached to "Hebrews"
and then to "others," including places such
as Persia, Parthia, and Syria (Eusebius, Eccl.
Hist. 3.24.6). The traditions are mixed
regarding Matthew's death, with some saying
that he died a martyr's death, while
others saying that he died a natural death.
Date and Destination
No precise date for the writing of Matthew
is known, although Jesus' prophecy
of the overthrow of Jerusalem (24:1-28),
has recently been used to indicate
that this Gospel must have been written
after A.D. 70. However, such a conclusion
is necessary only if one denies Jesus the
ability to predict the future. Since the
early church father Irenaeus (c. A.D. 175)
indicates that Matthew wrote his Gospel
while Paul and Peter were still alive,2 the
traditional dating has usually settled on
the late 50s or early 60s.
The highly influential church at Antioch
in Syria, with its large Jewish-Christian
and Gentile contingents (cf. Acts
11:19-26; 13:1-3), has often been recognized
as the original recipients of this
Gospel.This is confirmed in part because
of its influence on Ignatius, the bishop of
Antioch, and on the Didache. But
Matthew's message was equally relevant
for the fledgling church throughout the
ancient world, and appears to have been
disseminated fairly quickly.
Purpose in Writing
Matthew's first verse gives the direction
to his purpose for writing: It is a book
that establishes Jesus' identity as the
Messiah, the heir to the promises of
Israel's throne through King David and to
the promises of blessing to all the nations
through the patriarch Abraham. Against
the backdrop of a world increasingly hostile
to Christianity, Matthew solidifies his
church's identity as God's true people,
who transcend ethnic, economic, and
religious barriers to find oneness in their
adherence to Jesus Messiah. His gospel
becomes a manual on discipleship, as Jew
and Gentile become disciples of Jesus
who learn to obey all he commanded his
original disciples.
Matthew's Story of Jesus
Messiah
Matthew's Gospel, according to citations
found in early Christian writers, was the
most widely used and influential of any
of the Gospels. It has retained its appeal
throughout the centuries and has exerted
a powerful influence on the church. Its
popularity is explained at least in part
because of the following distinctives that
are found throughout this gospel.
(1) The bridge between Old and New
Testaments. From the opening lines of his
story, Matthew provides a natural bridge
between the Old Testament and New
Testament. He demonstrates repeatedly
that Old Testament hopes, prophecies,
and promises have now been fulfilled in
the person and ministry of Jesus, beginning
with the "fulfillment" of the messianic
genealogy (1:1), the fulfillment of
various Old Testament prophecies and
themes, and the fulfillment of the Old
Testament law. The early church likely
placed Matthew first in the New Testament
canon precisely because of its value
as a bridge between the Testaments.
(2) Salvation-historical "particularism"
and "universalism." These terms emphasize
that Matthew's Gospel lays striking
emphasis on both the fulfillment of the
promises of salvation to a particular
people, Israel, and also the fulfillment of
the universal promise of salvation to all
the peoples of the earth. Matthew's
Gospel alone points explicitly to Jesus'
intention to go first to the lost sheep of
the house of Israel (10:5-6; 15:24),
showing historically how God's promise
of salvation to Israel was indeed fulfilled.
Yet the promises made to Abraham that
he would be a blessing to all the nations
are also fulfilled as Jesus extends salvation
to the Gentiles (cf. 21:44; 28:19).
The church throughout the ages has
found assurance in Matthew's Gospel
that God truly keeps his promises to his
people.
(3) The new community of faith. Facing
the threat of gathering Roman persecution
within a pagan world, Matthew addresses
a church that is representative of the
emerging community of faith. The community
apparently has a large membership
of Jewish Christians, familiar with
temple activities and the Jewish religious
system. But it also has a large contingent
of Gentile Christians, who are discovering
their heritage of faith in God's universal
promise of salvation. The church has consistently
found in Matthew's Gospel a call
to a new community that transcends ethnic
and religious barriers to find oneness
in its adherence to Jesus Messiah.
(4) The church is built and maintained by
Jesus' continuing presence. Matthew
alone among the evangelists uses the termekklesia, which later became the common
term to designate the church. He emphasizes
explicitly that God's program of salvation-history
will find its continuation in
the present age as Jesus builds his church
and maintains his presence within its
assembly. Whoever responds to his invitation
(22:10)-whether Jew or Gentile,
male or female, rich or poor, slave or
free-are brought within the church to
enjoy his fellowship and demonstrate the
true community of faith.
(5) A "great commission" for evangelism
and mission. The form of Jesus' commission
to "make disciples of all the
nations" (28:19) is unique to Matthew's
Gospel, providing continuity between
Jesus' ministry of making disciples in his
earthly ministry and the ongoing ministry
of making disciples to which the church
has been called. This "great commission"
has been at the heart of evangelistic and
missionary endeavor throughout church
history.
(6) The structure of five discourses contributes
to a manual on discipleship. The
concluding element of the commission,
in which Jesus states that new disciples
are to be taught "to obey everything I
have commanded you" (28:20), gives a
hint to one overall purpose for
Matthew's Gospel. The presentation of
five of Jesus' major discourses, all of
which are addressed at least in part to
Jesus' disciples (chs. 5-7, 10, 13, 18, 24-25),
forms the most comprehensive collection
of Jesus' earthly instructional
ministry found in the Gospels. They provide
a wholistic presentation on the kind
of discipleship that was to be taught to
disciples as the basis for full-orbed obedience
to Christ and became the basis for
Christian catechesis within the church
throughout its history.
The Geneaology of Jesus
Messiah (1:1-17)
This is the story of the arrival of Jesus of
Nazareth, recorded as a compelling witness
that Jesus was the long-anticipated
Messiah, the prophesied fulfillment of
God's promise of deliverance for both
Jew and Gentile.
A record of the genealogy of Jesus Christ
(1:1). The Greek word translated
"genealogy" in 1:1 is genesis, "beginning,"
which is the title of the Greek translation
(LXX) of Genesis, where it implies that it
is a book of beginnings. Genesis gave the
story of one beginning-God's creation
and covenant relations with Israel-while
Matthew gives the story of a new
beginning-the arrival of Jesus the Messiah
and the kingdom of God.
Jesus Christ the son of David, the son of
Abraham (1:1). Matthew's opening had
special importance to a Jewish audience,
which traced their ancestry through the
covenants God made with Israel. "Jesus"
(Iesous) was the name normally used in
the Gospels, derived from the HebrewYeshua,"Yahweh saves" (Neh. 7:7), which
is a shortened form of Joshua, "Yahweh is
salvation" (Ex. 24:13). "Christ" is a title,
the transliteration of the Greek Christos,
which harks back to David as the
anointed king of Israel. The term came to
be associated with the promise of a Messiah
or "anointed one" who would be the
hope for the people of Israel. God had
promised David through Nathan the
prophet that the house and throne of
David would be established forever
(2 Sam.7:11b-16), a promise now fulfilled
in Jesus as the "son of David." But
Jesus is also the "son of Abraham." The
covenant God made with Abraham
established Israel as a chosen people, but
it was also a promise that his line would
be a blessing to all the nations (Gen.
12:1-3; 22:18).
Abraham the father of Isaac (1:2). The
Jews kept extensive genealogies, which
served generally as a record of a family's
descendants, but which were also used
for practical and legal purposes to establish
a person's heritage, inheritance, legitimacy,
and rights.
* Matthew
IMPORTANT FACTS:
AUTHOR: While technically anonymous, the first book of the New
Testament canon was unanimously attributed by the early church
to Matthew-Levi, one of the Twelve apostles of Jesus Christ.
DATE: A.D.60-61 (Paul imprisoned in Rome).
OCCASION: Matthew addresses a church that is representative of
the emerging Christian community of faith-it transcends ethnic,economic, and religious barriers to find oneness in its adherence
to Jesus Messiah. His Gospel becomes a manual on discipleship to
Jesus, as Jew and Gentile alike form a new community in an
increasingly hostile world.
PORTRAIT OF CHRIST: Jesus is the true Messiah, Immanuel, God-incarnate
with his people.
KEY THEMES:
1. The bridge between Old and New Testaments.
2. Salvation-historical "particularism" and "universalism."
3. The new community of faith.
4. The church built and maintained by Jesus' continuing presence.
5. A "great commission" for evangelism and mission.
6. The structure of five discourses contributes to a manual on
discipleship.
* Early Church Testimony to Matthean Authorship
Papias, bishop of Hierapolis in Asia Minor, lived
approximately A.D. 60-130.
Continues.
Continues.
Chapter One
ROMANSAll kinds of issues would need
to be tackled in a full-scale
introduction to Paul's letter
to the Romans: not least the questions
about the letter's purpose and
theme. But the introductory remarks
that follow will concentrate on the
background issues that are the focus
of this commentary. Other issues
will be ignored or touched on only
briefly.
Events Leading up to
Paul's Writing of Romans
Understanding Paul's own situation
as he writes Romans helps us appreciate
the purpose and theme of the
letter. In 15:14-22, he looks back at
a period of ministry just concluded.
"From Jerusalem all the way around
to Illyricum," Paul tells us, "I have
fully proclaimed the gospel of
Christ" (15:19). This verse indicates that
Paul's ministry has reached a significant
geographical turning point. As Luke tells
us in Acts, Paul first preached Christ in
Damascus (and perhaps Arabia) after his
conversion (Acts 9:19-22; cf. Gal. 1:17).
Only after three years did he go to
Jerusalem to preach, and then only
briefly (Gal. 1:18; cf. Acts 9:28-29).
Why, then, mention Jerusalem as the
starting point for his ministry? For two
reasons. First, the city represents the center
of Judaism, and Paul is concerned to
show how the gospel spread from the
Jews to the Gentiles. Second, the city
stands at one geographic extremity in his
missionary travels. At the other extremity
is Illyricum, the Roman province
occupying what is today Albania and
parts of Yugoslavia and Bosnia-Herzegovina.
Only here does Paul refer to missionary
work in this province, although
such a ministry can be fit easily into the
movements of Paul on his third missionary
journey (see comments on Rom.
15:19). An "arc" drawn from Jersualem to
Illyricum, therefore, passes over, or
nearby, the important churches that Paul
has planted in south Galatia (Pisidian
Antioch, Lystra, Iconium, Derbe), Asia
(Ephesus), Macedonia (Philippi, Thessalonica,
Berea), and Achaia (Corinth).
But what does Paul mean when he
claims that he has "fully proclaimed" the
gospel in these areas? The Greek has simply
the equivalent of our verb "fulfill"
(peplerokenai). To "fulfill" the gospel,
therefore, probably means to preach it
sufficiently such that viable churches are
established. These churches can then
carry on the task of evangelism in their
own territories while Paul moves on to
plant new churches in virgin gospel territory
(cf. 15:20-21).
In pursuit of this calling, Paul is moving
on to Spain (15:24). On the way, he
hopes to stop off in Rome, evidently to
enlist the Roman Christians' support for
his new gospel outreach (see comments
on 15:24). But before he can begin his
trip to the western Mediterranean, he
must first return to Jerusalem (15:25).
Throughout the third missionary journey,
Paul has collected money from the
Gentile churches he planted to bring
back to the impoverished Jerusalem
believers. Now he is ready to embark on
this trip, and he earnestly asks the Roman
Christians to pray for it (15:30-33). The
collection represents for Paul a key step
in what he hopes will be the reconciliation
of Jewish and Gentile Christians in
the early church.
The Life-Situation of Paul and
Why He Wrote
Four pieces of information from 15:23-33
are especially helpful in understanding
the situation of Paul as he writes Romans.
First, he is almost certainly writing the letter
during his winter stay in Corinth at
the end of the third missionary journey
(Acts 20:2-3; cf. 2 Cor. 13:1). Not only
does this place and time best fit the
movements Paul describes in chapter 15;
it also explains why he commends to the
Romans' attention a prominent woman
from the church in Cenchrea, the seaport
of Corinth (16:1-2).
Second, Paul is conscious of having
reached a significant turning point in his
missionary career. He has "fulfilled" the
gospel task in the eastern Mediterranean
and is now ready for new, fresh fields,
"white for the harvest." Such a turning
point is a natural time for Paul to reflect
on the gospel he has preached and the
controversies he has come through.
Third, Paul is deeply concerned about
the results of his impending trip to
Jerusalem with all its implications for
what is to him, and to many others, a central
theological issue in the early church:
the integration of Gentiles into the
people of God. We should not be surprised,
then, that this issue plays such a
large role in Romans.
Finally, Paul is seeking the support of
the Roman Christians for his new ministry
in Spain. Perhaps one of the reasons
Paul writes this letter to the church in
Rome is to introduce himself and explain
his theology so that the church will feel
comfortable in supporting him.
Rome and Its Church
Some scholars surmise that Paul's own
circumstances suffice to explain why he
writes Romans. At a key transition point
in his ministry, the apostle sets forth the
gospel he preaches to the Roman Christians
so that they can pray intelligently
for his visit to Jerusalem and so that they
will be willing to support his new evangelistic
effort in Spain. But left out in all
this is the Roman church itself. And what
we know about that church provides further
critical information about the nature
and purpose of Romans.
We have no direct evidence about the
origins of Christianity in Rome. The tradition
that Peter (or Peter and Paul
together) founded the church is almost
certainly erroneous. Not only is it difficult
to place Peter in Rome at such an
early date, but it is difficult to imagine
Paul writing to a church founded by
Peter in the way he does, considering his
expressed principle not to build "on
someone else's foundation" (15:20). No
other tradition from the ancient church
associates any other apostle with the
founding of the church.
Thus, the assessment of the fourth-century
Ambrosiaster is probably accurate:
the Romans "embraced the faith of
Christ, albeit according to the Jewish rite,
without seeing any sign of mighty works
or any of the apostles." Luke tells us that
"visitors from Rome" were present on the
day of Pentecost (Acts 2:10). Some of
them were probably converted as a result
of Peter's powerful speech. They would
have returned to their home city and
begun preaching Jesus as the Messiah.
We know that enough Jews had emigrated
to Rome by the first century B.C.
to make up a significant portion of the
population. The Jewish community was
not apparently unified, with many synagogues
independent of one another. This
circumstance may help explain why the
Christians in Rome are also divided.
The Letter and Ancient Genre
Considerations
Romans is, of course, a letter-but what
kind of letter? Ancient authors used letters
for many different purposes. Scholars
have been eager to identify the
particular persuasive, or "rhetorical,"
model that Romans belongs in. It has
been labeled an "epideictic" letter, an
ambassadorial letter, a "protreptic" letter,
and a "letter essay," to name just a
few of the more prominent suggestions.
A good case can be made for several of
these identifications. But, in the last
analysis, Romans does not fit neatly into
any specific genre. As James Dunn concludes,
"the distinctiveness of the letter
far outweighs the significance of its conformity
with current literary or rhetorical
custom."
Other scholars have noted the similarities
between sections of Romans and the
diatribe. The diatribe was a style of argument
popular with Cynic-Stoic philosophers
(the best example being Epictetus'sDiscourses [1st-2d c. A.D.]). The diatribe
features dialogues with fictional characters,
rhetorical questions, and the use of
the emphatic negation me genoito ("may
it never be!") to advance a line of argument.
These are just the features Paul uses
in passages such as 2:1-3:9; 3:27-31; 6:1-7:25;
9:14-23. Earlier scholars thought
the diatribe had a polemical purpose and
therefore tended to read Romans as a
debate with an opponent (perhaps Jewish).
But scholars have recently come to
realize that the diatribe was used more
often as a means of clarifying truth for
converts and disciples. The dialogical
"arguments" of Romans therefore have the
purpose of helping the Christians in Rome
better understand the gospel and its implications.
Address and Greeting (1:1-7)
People in Paul's day usually began their
letters by identifying themselves and
their addressee(s) and then adding a
greeting. Acts 23:26 is a good example:
"Claudius Lysias, To His Excellency, Governor
Felix: Greetings." Paul follows this
conventional structure but elaborates
each element. He spends six verses identifying
himself, probably because he
needs to establish his credentials in a
church that he did not found and has not
visited. Paul claims to be an apostle, dedicated
to the "gospel," the good news
about Jesus, God's Son. This Jesus, a
descendant of David in his earthly life,
has now been invested with new power
through his resurrection. It is this Jesus
whom Paul serves by calling on Gentiles
everywhere to trust God and to obey
him. And since the Roman Christians are
mainly Gentile, Paul has a perfect right to
proclaim God's good news to them.
Servant of Christ Jesus (1:1). Great leaders
in the Old Testament were also called
"servants" of the Lord (see, e.g., Josh.
14:7: "I was forty years old when Moses
the servant of the Lord sent me from
Kadesh Barnea to explore the land"). The
phrase therefore hints at Paul's own status
and authority. "Christ" comes from
the Greek word for "anointed" and is
equivalent to the Hebrew-derived "Messiah."
Placing "Christ" first focuses attention
on the word as a title.
* Romans
IMPORTANT FACTS:
* AUTHOR: Paul the apostle.
* DATE: A.D. 57.
* OCCASION: Paul writes toward the end of the third
missionary journey to a church that is divided
between Jewish and Gentile Christians.
* PURPOSE: To help the Roman Christians understand
the gospel, especially in its implications for the relationship
of Jew and Gentile in the church.
* The Disturbance of "Chrestus" and the Roman Church
One circumstance in the life of the Jews in Rome
probably played a significant role in explaining why
Paul writes Romans the way he does. The ancient
historian Suetonius tells us that Emperor Claudius
"expelled all the Jews from Rome because they
were constantly rioting at the instigation of Chrestus"
(Life of Claudius 25.2).
Most scholars are convinced that "Chrestus" is a
corruption of the term "Christ" and that Suetonius
is thereby hinting at disputes within the Jewish
community over Jesus' claim to be the Christ. Modern
historians are less certain over the date of this
expulsion. But a fifth-century Christian writer, Orosius,
puts the event in A.D. 49; and this date fits
nicely with Acts 18:2, which tells us that Priscilla and
Aquila ended up in Corinth during Paul's second
missionary journey, "because Claudius had ordered
all the Jews to leave Rome."
One can imagine the catastrophic effect this
would have had on the fledging Christian community
in Rome. Originating from the synagogue, the
bulk of Christians would probably have been Jewish.
Suddenly they are forced to leave (Claudius
would not have distinguished Jews and Jewish-Christians).
Left behind are Gentiles who had been
converted over the years. Many, if not most, were
probably from the class of "God-fearers," Gentiles
who had an interest in Judaism and heard the message
of Jesus in the synagogue. These Gentiles are
the only Christians left in Rome, so the church naturally
becomes less and less Jewish in orientation.
But by A.D. 54, the date of Claudius's death,
Jews are beginning to return. As Jewish-Christians
(like Priscilla and Aquila; cf. Rom. 16:3-5) filter
back into the church, they find that they are now
in a minority. The social tensions created by this history
go a long way in explaining the tensions
between Jews and Gentiles
that the letter to
the Romans abundantly
attests (cf. 11:13, 25;
14:1-15:13).
(Continues.)
Chapter One
Who Wrote the Gospel?
The Gospel itself claims to have been
written by a member of Jesus' inner
circle, an apostle, one of the Twelve.
Since the apostolic office was foundational
and unrepeatable in the history
of the church (Acts 2:42; Eph.
2:20), their message, the gospel, has
special authority. As an apostle (i.e.,
one specially commissioned by Jesus
Christ), John was given a mission to
testify to what he had seen and heard
(John 15:27; 1 John 1:1-4). In fact,
being an eyewitness of Jesus' ministry
was an indispensable requirement
for apostleship (Acts 1:21-22;
cf. John 1:14).
Implicit in John is also the claim
of having been written by the disciple
who was closest to Jesus during
his earthly ministry. All the Gospel
writers concur that John's relationship
with Jesus was particularly
close. In the present Gospel, the
apostle conceals himself behind the
expression "the disciple whom Jesus
loved" (13:23; 19:26; 20:2; 21:20). As an
apostolic eyewitness, John is uniquely
qualified to write an authoritative
account of Jesus' life: "The man who saw
it has given testimony, and his testimony
is true" (19:35; cf. 21:24).
Where and Why Was the
Gospel Written?
John's purpose is bound up with believing
in Jesus and having life in his name
(20:30-31). By presenting certain startling
events in Jesus' ministry as evidence
that Jesus is the long-awaited Messiah,
John seeks to lead his readers to place
their faith in Jesus. In the aftermath of
the destruction of Jerusalem and the
temple in A.D. 70, John shows Jesus to be
the fulfillment of Jewish as well as universal
human aspirations.
While ancient tradition places the
writing of John's Gospel at Ephesus (Irenaeus,
Haer. 3.1.2), the work ultimately
transcends any one historical setting and
applies to the entire church of John's as
well as our day. Some of the material
incorporated in this Gospel probably
grew over years of preaching and teaching.
John's awareness of the contents of
the other canonical gospels may also
have influenced his final selection of
material.
Together with Rome, Corinth, Antioch,
and Alexandria, Ephesus ranked
among the most important urban centers
of the Roman empire. Located at the
intersection of major trade routes, Ephesus
was the largest and most well-known
city of Asia Minor (modern Turkey).
In an important development,
Emperor Augustus declared Ephesus as
capital of the province of Asia in place
of Pergamum. The Ephesian temple of
Artemis was one of the seven wonders of
the ancient world, and its theater could
seat 25,000 people. Ephesus acquired its
first imperial temple (attaining to the status
of neokoros, "temple warden") during
the latter years of Domitian's reign (A.D.
81-96).
A Gospel of Decision
John's Gospel has rightly been called "a
Gospel of decision." Every person must
choose between light or darkness, faith or
unbelief, life or death. Light, life, and salvation,
in turn, can be attained only by
faith in the crucified and risen Messiah,
Jesus.
The Word's Eternal Preexistence
(1:1-2)
Like the other evangelists, John gives an
account of the life and ministry of Jesus.
But he does so differently from the start.
Matthew and Luke begin their Gospels
with Jesus' family tree and an account of
his birth. Mark jumps immediately to the
ministry of John the Baptist, Jesus' forerunner.
But John begins his account by
showing Jesus embarking on a journey-not
from Galilee to Jerusalem, but from
existing eternally with God to becoming
a human being like us. Thus we start in
1:1 in eternity past and arrive in 1:6
around A.D. 29 in the land of Palestine.
Jesus' ministry is about to begin.
In the beginning (1:1). When hearing
the phrase "in the beginning," any person
in John's day familiar with the Scriptures
would immediately think of the opening
verse of Genesis: "In the beginning God
created the heavens and the earth." John
reaches back even farther into eternity
past. His point is that in the beginning,
even prior to creation, someone already
existed along with the Father: the Word
(cf. 1 John 1:1).
Was the Word (1:1). Echoes of the creation
account continue here with allusion
to the powerful and effective word of
God ("And God said, 'Let there be light,'
and there was light"; Gen. 1:3). The
psalmists and prophets alike portray
God's word (logos) in almost personal
terms (e.g., Ps. 33:6; 107:20; 147:15, 18;
Isa. 55:10-11). Isaiah, for instance,
describes God's "word" as coming down
from heaven and returning to him after
achieving the purpose for which it was
sent (Isa. 55:10-11). John takes the
prophetic depiction of God's word in the
Old Testament one decisive step further.
No longer is God's word merely spoken
of in personal terms; it now has appeared
as a real person, the Lord Jesus Christ (cf.
1 John 1:1; Rev. 19:13).
While the primary source of John's
depiction of Jesus as the Word is the Old
Testament, his opening lines would resonate
with his Greek-speaking audience.
In Stoic philosophy, for instance, logos was
used to refer to the impersonal principle
of Reason, which was thought to govern
the universe. It is a mark of John's considerable
theological genius that he is able
to find a term ("the Word") that is at the
same time thoroughly biblical-that is,
rooted in Old Testament teaching-and
highly relevant for his present audience.
The Word was with God (1:1). The term
"God" (theos) is familiar to John's readers
since it refers to the God revealed in the
Old Testament. This word occurs in Genesis
1:1 (LXX) with reference to the Creator.
The same expression is also used for
"god" in the Greco-Roman world whose
pantheon was made up of dozens of
deities. In contrast, the Jews believed in
only one God (Deut. 6:4).
The Word was God (1:1). Having distinguished
the Word (i.e., Jesus) from
God, John now shows what both have in
common: They are God. From the
patristic era (Arius) to the present (Jehovah's
Witnesses), it has been argued that
this verse merely identifies Jesus as a god
rather than as God, because there is no
definite article in front of the word theos.
But John, as a monotheistic Jew, would
hardly have referred to another person as
"a god." Also, if he had placed a definite
article before theos, this would have so
equated God and the Word that the distinction
established between the two
persons in the previous clause ("the Word
was with God") would have been all but
obliterated. Clearly calling Jesus God
stretched the boundaries of first-century
Jewish monotheism.
Moreover, in Greek syntax it is common
for a definite nominative predicate
noun preceding the verb einai (to be) not
to have the article, so that it is illegitimate
to infer indefiniteness from the lack
of the article in the present passage. If, in
fact, John had merely wanted to affirm
that Jesus was divine, there was a perfectly
proper Greek word for that concept
(the adjective theios).
The Word's Involvement in
Creation (1:3-5)
Through him all things were made (1:3).
The affirmation that all things were
made through wisdom or through God'sWord is thoroughly in keeping with Jewish
belief. John's contention, however,
that everything came into being through
"him"-that is, Jesus, God-become-flesh-is
startling indeed. Nevertheless,
this notion is in no way unique to John;
it pervades much of the New Testament.
Paul speaks of Jesus as the image of the
invisible God, through whom and for
whom all things were created (Col.
1:16). Jesus is the "one Lord . through
whom all things came and through
whom we live" (1 Cor. 8:6). Hebrews
refers to Jesus as God's Son through
whom he made the universe (Heb. 1:2).
The Aramaic Targum refers to the "word"
(memra) of the Lord as an agent of creation.
Greco-Roman parallels likewise
portray various intermediaries as instrumental
in creation (e.g., Lucretius, Rer.
Nat. 1:4-5, 21-23 [first cent. B.C.]), as
does Philo, the Hellenistic Jewish
philosopher, who identifies wisdom and
the Word (Alleg. Interp. 1.65; Heir 191;Dreams 2.242-45) and portrays the latter
as the instrument through which the
universe was created (Cherubim 127).
Life . light (1:4). Both "life" and "light"
are universal religious terms, but John's
teaching is deeply rooted in the Old Testament.
At creation, calling forth "light"
was God's first creative act (Gen. 1:3-5).
Later, God placed lights in the sky to separate
between light and darkness (1:14-18).
Light, in turn, makes it possible for
"life" to exist. Thus on the fifth and sixth
days of creation, God makes animate life
to populate both the waters and dry land,
culminating in his creation of humankind
(1:20-31; 2:7; 3:20).
Now, according to John, life was "in
him," Jesus. Jesus is the source of life,
including both physical and spiritual
("eternal") life. He also is the source of
light, since only those who possess spiritual,
eternal life have within themselves
the capacity to "walk in the light," that is,
to make moral decisions that are in accordance
with the revealed will of God.
This again shows John's knack for
contextualization. While drawing on
solidly Old Testament concepts, he
employs these universal terms to engage
adherents of other religions and worldviews.
For some, light was wisdom (or
wisdom was even superior to light; cf.
Wisd. Sol. 7:26-30); for others, light was
given by the Mosaic law (2 Bar. 59:2) or
Scripture (Ps. 19:8; 119:105, 130; Prov.
6:23); still others looked for enlightenment
in philosophy, morality, or a simple
lifestyle. Into this religious pluralism
of his day, John proclaims Jesus as the
supreme Light, who is both eternal and
universal and yet personal.
Light . darkness (1:5). Beneath this
contrast between light and darkness lies
a significant cluster of Old Testament
passages. Most interesting in this regard
are several instances in Isaiah that depict
the coming Messiah as a light entering
the darkness. In Isaiah 9:2, we read that
"the people walking in darkness have
seen a great light; on those living in the
land of the shadow of death a light has
dawned." In Isaiah 60:1-5, a time is envisioned
when the nations will walk in
God's light and the glory of the Lord will
shine brightly.
Some believe John is here alluding to
the Greek dualism between light and
darkness. Rather than affirming belief in
a personal God who is sovereign, all-powerful,
and good, the Greeks viewed
reality in terms of polar opposites, such
as light and darkness or good and evil.
John, however, refutes this kind of thinking
in his first letter, where he states
emphatically, "God is light; in him there
is no darkness at all" (1 John 1:5).
Another kind of light/darkness dualism is
found in the Dead Sea Scrolls, particularly
in the so-called "War Scroll" (1QM)
depicting the battle between the "sons of
light" and the "sons of darkness." But
because of the sectarian nature of the
Qumran community, light is never
offered to those who live in darkness (cf.
1QS 3:21; 4:9-14).
In John, however, Jesus urges his listeners
to "put your trust in the light while
you have it, so that you may become sons
of light" (John 12:36; cf. 8:12; 9:5). Light
and darkness are no equally matched
duality, but in the titanic battle between
Jesus and Satan, Jesus, "the light,"
emerges as the overwhelming victor.
Regarding this final outcome, John's
readers are never left in suspense. Rather,
the evangelist announces at the outset
that the darkness has not overcome the
light (1:5). To be sure, at the cross, the
forces of evil appear to have gained the
upper hand; but this is followed by the
resurrection.
John the Witness to the Light
(1:6-8)
A man . sent from God (1:6). The
evangelist now moves on to anchor Jesus'
ministry firmly in salvation history. This
phrase is reminiscent of the Old Testament
description of a prophet whose role
was to function as a spokesman for God
(e.g., Ezek. 2:3).
His name was John (1:6). The name
"John," a common name in the Hellenistic
world of that day, occurred frequently
among the members of the Jewish priesthood,
which included John's father
Zechariah (Luke 1:5). "John" in this
Gospel always means "John the Baptist."
The "other John" known from Matthew,
Mark, and Luke-that is, John the apostle,
the son of Zebedee-is not referred
to by name in this Gospel. It is likely that
he, as the author of the present gospel,
conceals himself behind the phrase "the
disciple whom Jesus loved" (first used in
13:23; see comments there).
All . might believe (1:7). The desired
(though not actual) result of John's ministry
is that "all might believe" in Jesus (cf.
comments on 1:9). The expression
"believe" is found frequently in the Old
Testament to describe the trust God
desires from his people. Abraham
"believed the Lord" and thus became
the father, not just of the Jewish nation,
but of all believers (Gen. 15:6). Israel
as a nation, on the other hand, is known
in the Old Testament not so much for her
faith in God as for her unbelief (John
12:38; cf. Isa. 53:1). While John is not
averse to "believing" as the affirmation of
certain religious truths, he is much more
concerned about active, relational trust in
Jesus Christ.
The World's Rejection of the
Light (1:9-11)
The true light (1:9). The coming of the
Messiah is frequently depicted in the Old
Testament in terms of light. An important
oracle, picked up also by Qumran,
envisions the coming of "a star" out of
Jacob (Num. 24:17). Isaiah, too, describes
the coming of the Messiah as "a light"
shining in darkness (Isa. 9:2; cf. 42:6-7;
see comments on John 1:5). Malachi
announces that "the sun of righteousness
will rise with healing in its wings" (Mal.
4:2). Echoing these words, Zechariah
(father of John the Baptist) says about
Jesus that "the rising sun will come to us
from heaven to shine on those living in
darkness" (Luke 1:78-79). By affirming
that Jesus is the "true light"-just as he is
the "true bread from heaven" (John 6:32)
and the "true vine" (15:1)-John indicates
that Jesus is the fulfillment of Old
Testament hopes and expectations.
Some have suggested that John is here
engaging the Greek dualism between
shadow and reality, contending that the
expression "true light" is better rendered
"real light" (in distinction to a mere
resemblance). Perhaps some of John's
Greek-speaking readers took it that way.
But the primary contrast seems to be, not
between real over against ideal in the
Greek sense, but between earlier manifestations
of God in Old Testament times
through the law or various prophets and
God's final, definitive revelation through
Jesus Christ (cf. 1:17; 5:39; 12:38; cf. Heb.
1:1-3).
Continues.
Chapter One
Introduction to The Gospel
According to Matthew
On the surface of the Mediterranean
world lay the famed pax Romana,
"the peace of Rome," which the
Roman historian Tacitus attributes
almost solely to the immense powers
of Caesar Augustus. But as Tacitus
observes, the "peace" that Augustus
inaugurated did not bring with it freedom
for all of his subjects; many continued
to hope for change. Tides of
revolution swirled just below the surface
and periodically rose to disturb
the so-called peace of the Roman
empire.
In one of the remote regions of
the empire, where a variety of disturbances
repeatedly surfaced, the
hoped for freedom finally arrived in
a most unexpected way. A rival to
Augustus was born in Israel. But this
rival did not appear with fanfare,
nor would he challenge directly the
military and political might of
Rome. Even many of his own people
would become disappointed with
the revolution that he would bring,
because it was a revolution of the heart,
not of swords or chariots.
This is the story of the arrival of Jesus
of Nazareth, recorded by the apostle
Matthew as a compelling witness that
Jesus was the long-anticipated Messiah,
the prophesied fulfillment of God's
promise of true peace and deliverance for
both Jew and Gentile.
Author
All of the four Gospels are technically
anonymous, since the names of the
authors are not stated explicitly. This is
natural since the authors were not writing
letters to which are attached the
names of the addressees and senders.
Rather, the evangelists were compiling
stories of Jesus for churches of which
they were active participants and leaders.
They likely stood among the assembly
and first read their Gospel account themselves.
To attach their names as authors
would have been unnecessary, because
their audiences knew their identity, or
perhaps even inappropriate, since the primary
intention was not to assert their
own leadership authority, but to record
for their audiences the matchless story of
the life and ministry of Jesus.
Therefore we must look to the
records of church history to find evidence
for the authorship of the Gospels.
The earliest church tradition unanimously
ascribes the first Gospel to
Matthew, the tax-collector who was
called to be one of the original twelve
disciples of Jesus. The earliest and most
important of these traditions come from
Papias, bishop of Hierapolis in Asia Minor
(c. 135), and from Irenaeus, bishop of
Lyons in Gaul (c. 175). These church
leaders either knew the apostolic community
directly or were taught by those
associated with the apostles; thus, they
were directly aware of the origins of the
Gospels. While the full meaning of their
statements is still open to discussion, no
competing tradition assigning the first
Gospel to any other author has survived,
if any ever existed. False ascription to a
relatively obscure apostle such as
Matthew seems unlikely until a later
date, when canonization of apostles was
common.
Matthew, the Person
The list of the twelve disciples in
Matthew's gospel refers to "Matthew the
tax collector" (10:3), which harks back to
the incident when Jesus called Matthew
while he was sitting in the tax office (cf.
9:9). When recounting the call, the first
Gospel refers to him as "Matthew" (9:9),
while Mark's Gospel refers to him as
"Levi son of Alphaeus" (Mark 2:14), and
Luke's Gospel refers to him as "Levi"
(Luke 5:27). Speculation surrounds the
reason for the variation, but most scholars
suggest that this tax collector had two
names, Matthew Levi, either from birth
or from the time of his conversion.
The name Levi may be an indication
that he was from the tribe of Levi and
therefore was familiar with Levitical
practices. Mark's record of the calling
refers to him as the "son of Alphaeus"
(Mark 2:14), which some have understood
to mean that he was the brother of
the apostle "James son of Alphaeus" (cf.
Mark 3:18). But since the other pairs of
brothers are specified as such and linked
together, it is unlikely that Matthew-Levi
and James were brothers.
Matthew-Levi was called to follow
Jesus while he was sitting in the tax collector's
booth. This booth was probably
located on one of the main trade highways
near Capernaum, collecting tolls for
Herod Antipas from the commercial traffic
traveling through this area. Matthew
immediately followed Jesus and arranged
a banquet for Jesus at his home, to which
were invited a large crowd of tax collectors
and sinners (9:10-11; Luke 5:29-30).
Since tax collectors generally were
fairly wealthy and were despised by the
local populace (cf. Zacchaeus, Luke
19:1-10), Matthew's calling and response
were completely out of the ordinary
and required nothing short of a
miraculous turn-around in this tax collector's
life.
Little else is known of Matthew-Levi,
except for the widely attested tradition
that he is the author of this Gospel that
now bears his name. As a tax collector he
would have been trained in secular scribal
techniques, and as a Galilean Jewish Christian
he would have been able to interpret
the life of Jesus from the perspective of the
Old Testament expectations. Eusebius said
that Matthew first preached to "Hebrews"
and then to "others," including places such
as Persia, Parthia, and Syria (Eusebius, Eccl.
Hist. 3.24.6). The traditions are mixed
regarding Matthew's death, with some saying
that he died a martyr's death, while
others saying that he died a natural death.
Date and Destination
No precise date for the writing of Matthew
is known, although Jesus' prophecy
of the overthrow of Jerusalem (24:1-28),
has recently been used to indicate
that this Gospel must have been written
after A.D. 70. However, such a conclusion
is necessary only if one denies Jesus the
ability to predict the future. Since the
early church father Irenaeus (c. A.D. 175)
indicates that Matthew wrote his Gospel
while Paul and Peter were still alive,2 the
traditional dating has usually settled on
the late 50s or early 60s.
The highly influential church at Antioch
in Syria, with its large Jewish-Christian
and Gentile contingents (cf. Acts
11:19-26; 13:1-3), has often been recognized
as the original recipients of this
Gospel.This is confirmed in part because
of its influence on Ignatius, the bishop of
Antioch, and on the Didache. But
Matthew's message was equally relevant
for the fledgling church throughout the
ancient world, and appears to have been
disseminated fairly quickly.
Purpose in Writing
Matthew's first verse gives the direction
to his purpose for writing: It is a book
that establishes Jesus' identity as the
Messiah, the heir to the promises of
Israel's throne through King David and to
the promises of blessing to all the nations
through the patriarch Abraham. Against
the backdrop of a world increasingly hostile
to Christianity, Matthew solidifies his
church's identity as God's true people,
who transcend ethnic, economic, and
religious barriers to find oneness in their
adherence to Jesus Messiah. His gospel
becomes a manual on discipleship, as Jew
and Gentile become disciples of Jesus
who learn to obey all he commanded his
original disciples.
Matthew's Story of Jesus
Messiah
Matthew's Gospel, according to citations
found in early Christian writers, was the
most widely used and influential of any
of the Gospels. It has retained its appeal
throughout the centuries and has exerted
a powerful influence on the church. Its
popularity is explained at least in part
because of the following distinctives that
are found throughout this gospel.
(1) The bridge between Old and New
Testaments. From the opening lines of his
story, Matthew provides a natural bridge
between the Old Testament and New
Testament. He demonstrates repeatedly
that Old Testament hopes, prophecies,
and promises have now been fulfilled in
the person and ministry of Jesus, beginning
with the "fulfillment" of the messianic
genealogy (1:1), the fulfillment of
various Old Testament prophecies and
themes, and the fulfillment of the Old
Testament law. The early church likely
placed Matthew first in the New Testament
canon precisely because of its value
as a bridge between the Testaments.
(2) Salvation-historical "particularism"
and "universalism." These terms emphasize
that Matthew's Gospel lays striking
emphasis on both the fulfillment of the
promises of salvation to a particular
people, Israel, and also the fulfillment of
the universal promise of salvation to all
the peoples of the earth. Matthew's
Gospel alone points explicitly to Jesus'
intention to go first to the lost sheep of
the house of Israel (10:5-6; 15:24),
showing historically how God's promise
of salvation to Israel was indeed fulfilled.
Yet the promises made to Abraham that
he would be a blessing to all the nations
are also fulfilled as Jesus extends salvation
to the Gentiles (cf. 21:44; 28:19).
The church throughout the ages has
found assurance in Matthew's Gospel
that God truly keeps his promises to his
people.
(3) The new community of faith. Facing
the threat of gathering Roman persecution
within a pagan world, Matthew addresses
a church that is representative of the
emerging community of faith. The community
apparently has a large membership
of Jewish Christians, familiar with
temple activities and the Jewish religious
system. But it also has a large contingent
of Gentile Christians, who are discovering
their heritage of faith in God's universal
promise of salvation. The church has consistently
found in Matthew's Gospel a call
to a new community that transcends ethnic
and religious barriers to find oneness
in its adherence to Jesus Messiah.
(4) The church is built and maintained by
Jesus' continuing presence. Matthew
alone among the evangelists uses the termekklesia, which later became the common
term to designate the church. He emphasizes
explicitly that God's program of salvation-history
will find its continuation in
the present age as Jesus builds his church
and maintains his presence within its
assembly. Whoever responds to his invitation
(22:10)-whether Jew or Gentile,
male or female, rich or poor, slave or
free-are brought within the church to
enjoy his fellowship and demonstrate the
true community of faith.
(5) A "great commission" for evangelism
and mission. The form of Jesus' commission
to "make disciples of all the
nations" (28:19) is unique to Matthew's
Gospel, providing continuity between
Jesus' ministry of making disciples in his
earthly ministry and the ongoing ministry
of making disciples to which the church
has been called. This "great commission"
has been at the heart of evangelistic and
missionary endeavor throughout church
history.
(6) The structure of five discourses contributes
to a manual on discipleship. The
concluding element of the commission,
in which Jesus states that new disciples
are to be taught "to obey everything I
have commanded you" (28:20), gives a
hint to one overall purpose for
Matthew's Gospel. The presentation of
five of Jesus' major discourses, all of
which are addressed at least in part to
Jesus' disciples (chs. 5-7, 10, 13, 18, 24-25),
forms the most comprehensive collection
of Jesus' earthly instructional
ministry found in the Gospels. They provide
a wholistic presentation on the kind
of discipleship that was to be taught to
disciples as the basis for full-orbed obedience
to Christ and became the basis for
Christian catechesis within the church
throughout its history.
The Geneaology of Jesus
Messiah (1:1-17)
This is the story of the arrival of Jesus of
Nazareth, recorded as a compelling witness
that Jesus was the long-anticipated
Messiah, the prophesied fulfillment of
God's promise of deliverance for both
Jew and Gentile.
A record of the genealogy of Jesus Christ
(1:1). The Greek word translated
"genealogy" in 1:1 is genesis, "beginning,"
which is the title of the Greek translation
(LXX) of Genesis, where it implies that it
is a book of beginnings. Genesis gave the
story of one beginning-God's creation
and covenant relations with Israel-while
Matthew gives the story of a new
beginning-the arrival of Jesus the Messiah
and the kingdom of God.
Jesus Christ the son of David, the son of
Abraham (1:1). Matthew's opening had
special importance to a Jewish audience,
which traced their ancestry through the
covenants God made with Israel. "Jesus"
(Iesous) was the name normally used in
the Gospels, derived from the HebrewYeshua,"Yahweh saves" (Neh. 7:7), which
is a shortened form of Joshua, "Yahweh is
salvation" (Ex. 24:13). "Christ" is a title,
the transliteration of the Greek Christos,
which harks back to David as the
anointed king of Israel. The term came to
be associated with the promise of a Messiah
or "anointed one" who would be the
hope for the people of Israel. God had
promised David through Nathan the
prophet that the house and throne of
David would be established forever
(2 Sam.7:11b-16), a promise now fulfilled
in Jesus as the "son of David." But
Jesus is also the "son of Abraham." The
covenant God made with Abraham
established Israel as a chosen people, but
it was also a promise that his line would
be a blessing to all the nations (Gen.
12:1-3; 22:18).
Abraham the father of Isaac (1:2). The
Jews kept extensive genealogies, which
served generally as a record of a family's
descendants, but which were also used
for practical and legal purposes to establish
a person's heritage, inheritance, legitimacy,
and rights.
* Matthew
IMPORTANT FACTS:
AUTHOR: While technically anonymous, the first book of the New
Testament canon was unanimously attributed by the early church
to Matthew-Levi, one of the Twelve apostles of Jesus Christ.
DATE: A.D.60-61 (Paul imprisoned in Rome).
OCCASION: Matthew addresses a church that is representative of
the emerging Christian community of faith-it transcends ethnic,economic, and religious barriers to find oneness in its adherence
to Jesus Messiah. His Gospel becomes a manual on discipleship to
Jesus, as Jew and Gentile alike form a new community in an
increasingly hostile world.
PORTRAIT OF CHRIST: Jesus is the true Messiah, Immanuel, God-incarnate
with his people.
KEY THEMES:
1. The bridge between Old and New Testaments.
2. Salvation-historical "particularism" and "universalism."
3. The new community of faith.
4. The church built and maintained by Jesus' continuing presence.
5. A "great commission" for evangelism and mission.
6. The structure of five discourses contributes to a manual on
discipleship.
* Early Church Testimony to Matthean Authorship
Papias, bishop of Hierapolis in Asia Minor, lived
approximately A.D. 60-130.
Continues.
